For technologies such as the fifth generation of wireless communications technology, such innovation is necessary to enable high-performance adaptable radios, where high-frequency resonators are a key element in both filters and voltage-controlled oscillators used. This approach increases performance, supply chain resilience and security by reducing the number of chips from different process technologies that must be integrated and packaged into the final product. There is currently an increased focus on the functional diversification of existing semiconductor process nodes to create new technologies 1, 2. Our results illustrate the feasibility of integrating acoustic devices directly into standard complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor processes. Fifteen device variations are analysed across 30 bias points, quantifying the importance of phononic confinement on resonator performance and demonstrating the velocity-saturated piezoresistive effect in active resonant transistors. The devices use phononic waveguides for acoustic confinement and exploit metal–oxide–semiconductor capacitors and transistors to electromechanically drive and sense acoustic vibrations. Here we report unreleased acoustic resonators that are fabricated in 14 nm fin field-effect transistor technology and operate in the X-band frequency range (8–12 GHz). One approach is to integrate the frequency references of acoustic microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) with complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor processes, typically through a MEMS-first or MEMS-last approach that requires process customization. In radio communication, the growth of beamforming and multiple-input–multiple-output technologies, which increase transceiver complexity, have led to a drive to reduce the size, weight and power of radio components by integrating them into a single system on chip.
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